History of Adult Education: The 1960s (Mady Folz)

 History of Adult Education: The 1960s

 

Madeline Folz

EDAC 631: Adult and Community Education

History of American Education

Dr. Bo Chang

February 9, 2021

  

Name	Commented on
Mady Folz	Keila Escobedo Vicki Cooper

Abstract

            This paper spans major themes and trends in the social background, influential factors, and implications of adult education in the 1960s.  It includes discussions of economic contributions, federal involvement in the advancement of adult education, and how major world events including the Vietnam war and the Civil Rights Movement contributed to the evolvement of adult education as we know it today.  It considers how legislation and events in the decade prior helped shape the events within the 1960s in regard to adult education and how this has affected future generations.

Key terms: education, adult education, education programs, teaching, civil rights 

Introduction/Social Background

            The early 1960s proved to be a prominent time for education as the federal government, led by John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson, became increasingly education-oriented (“The 1960s Education…,” 2021).  In fact, federal legislation for adult education began in 1964 (“Federal Adult Education…,” 2013).  Kennedy and Johnson were advocates for education for all, lobbying for increased federal funding of education (“The 1960s Education…,” 2021).  These federal efforts were met with some backlash, though, by politicians who felt schooling was strictly a local issue (“The 1960s Education…,” 2021).  

The mid-1960s saw an economic recession that caused unemployment rates to reach heights that hadn’t been seen since the 1930s (“Federal Adult Education…,” 2013).  This revealed a need for adult education as many Americans lacked the skills and knowledge required for other employment opportunities. In the midst of this was a monumental shift in education and society as citizens fought for further desegregation of schools, decided on by the Supreme Court in the 1954 case of Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas (“The 1960s Education…,” 2021). 

Meanwhile, the war in Vietnam and the mandatory draft of males led to increasing rates of college enrollment, including those who would not have otherwise attended (“The 1960s Education…,” 2021).  Conflict arose over the fact that military personnel were under-educated due to the lack of opportunity to further their education after high school. Back home, the war moved individuals to hold protests and demonstrations at American universities which escalated into the 1964 free speech movement.  This movement inspired protests against the war, racism, and school procedures and regulations, ultimately leading to considerable reformation of university rules and regulations across America.  Students were raising their voices and fostering change not only within education systems but in society as a whole.  Despite this, the 1960s still saw criticism of American education as lacking ingenuity and simply preparing individuals for the workforce rather than promoting self-expression and originality (“The 1960s Education…,” 2021).

Highlights

            The 1950s paved the way for the federal legislature on adult education brought about in the 1960s.  During this time, the US Department of Education’s organizational chart was made to include an Adult Education Section that sought to bring awareness to the importance of lifelong learning; assist in identifying problems that have implications for adult education; encourage acceptance of adult education as part of regular education programs; and bring about clarity, communication, and collaboration among adult education groups and agencies (“Federal Adult Education…,” 2013).  In the early 1960s, adult education programs were geared primarily towards training unemployed heads of households due to skyrocketing unemployment rates.  This brought about two pieces of legislature: the Area Redevelopment Act of 1961 and the Manpower Development and Training Act (MDTA) of 1962.  These programs also helped train the unemployed whose jobs were lost due to shifts in demand for labor and technological advancements.  The MDTA was amended in 1963 to provide funding for teaching basic education skills to unemployed adults and out-of-school youth (“Federal Adult Education…,” 2013).  

The Adult Education Section was imperative during this time in creating programs and consulting services, conducting research, and providing a wealth of information regarding adult education (“Federal Adult Education…,” 2013).  Their focus was on education of the aging, literacy, adult basic education, community development, leisure time education, and the like.  The Adult Education Section made clearer the path for further federal action for adult education.  Most notable were the 1964 Economic Opportunity Act; the 1966 Adult Education Act; and the 1968 Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) Amendments.  While in general, the employment rate was improving, it was very disproportional leaving many black Americans, non-English speaking Americans, and the undereducated unemployed.  This gave way to the Civil Rights Act of 1964 which prohibited discrimination in employment based on race, sex, age, religion, or national origin (“Federal Adult Education…,” 2013).

Despite this, limited education put these people at a disadvantage in the workforce and limited their access to social services available to educated members of society (“Federal Adult Education…,” 2013).  The Economic Opportunity Act of 1964 helped establish the Adult Basic Education (ABE) program and set the stage for addressing adult illiteracy and educational disadvantages in the United States.  Two years later in 1966, the ABE program’s authority transitioned from the Office of Economic Opportunity to the US Office of Education’s aforementioned Adult Education Section.  Furthermore, the 1966 Adult Education Act brought even more federal support for adult education programs but with a deemphasis on vocations and an increase in special projects and staff development.  This Act brought about an increase in funding that allowed for a rise in staffing of education departments at state levels and an increase in teacher training.  In 1968, passage of the P.L. 90-247 (ESEA Amendments) generated a focus on adult literacy and led to a clearer understanding of the needs for action (“Federal Adult Education…,” 2013).

A need for educational training of drafted military personnel had been realized since World War I and was still a major problem during the Vietnam War (“Federal Adult Education…,” 2013).  In 1969, Project 100,000, a project designed to provide illiterate US military men with training to bring them up to a fourth-grade level, was implemented. Additionally, service personnel were afforded the opportunity to attend general educational development (GED) programs to attain high school equivalence.  Educational activities for self-improvement were also encouraged for service personnel. 1969 also brought about programs for low level employees aimed at improving educational and technical skills to enable equal employment opportunities and advancement into higher paying positions.  The methods and materials used in these programs were later adopted for civilian education across the country (“Federal Adult Education…,” 2013).

Influential Factors

            The increased federal interest in education during the 1960s served as a catalyst toward needed programs and legislation in America.  Presidents John F Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson left a legacy in education by pushing for federal financial aid for schools, universities, and educational programs as well as for equality in education.  New funding led to the creation of novel programs for disadvantaged adults as well as the military and other government employees (“Federal Adult Education…,” 2013).  Additionally, legislature to increase access to education materials for the blind; provide training for teaching of deaf individuals; provide scholarship eligibility for American nationals; and provide aid for public schools, libraries, and educational broadcasting facilities were passed under Kennedy and Johnson (“Legislative Summary: Education,” n.d.). Kennedy believed that education was the most important subject in politics and that it was linked to a strong and democratic society (Armontrout, 1992).  He proved his passion for solving the “crisis in education” through his legislative proposals spanning elementary and secondary school, higher education, and vocational education, including the Educational Bill of 1961.  This bill was touted as “the most far-seeing program for education that has been urged by the White House since the Morrill Act [of 1862] (Armontrout, 1992).”  

The Civil Rights Movement in the 1960s was another major factor that substantially influenced education (“The 1960s Education…,” 2021).  Civil rights activists and organizations including Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., Rosa Parks, Malcolm X, Alice Walker, Maya Angelou, James Baldwin, Thurgood Marshall, the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), and Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) contributed to American knowledge by using their voices to enact needed change.  In addition to being spokespersons for the Civil Rights Movement, many of these individuals were also established authors, playwrights, and educators. Their peaceful protests and speeches as they fought for desegregation and equal rights are now some of the most well-known pieces of American history.  The Civil Rights Movement changed the way Americans were taught.  Course materials were changed to include discussions of equality for black Americans and Native Americans.  Bilingual educational programs soared as immigrant students tried to preserve their native cultures.  Scholarly curiosity and empowerment of students were encouraged over memorization.  Additionally, new areas of study became available including theater arts, social science, and sociology (“The 1960s Education…,” 2021).  

An educator who helped create theories for teaching adults was Paulo Freire, a Brazilian educator and author, whose 1968 book Pedagogy of the Oppressed is now considered one of the foundational texts of the critical pedagogy movement (Bentley, 1999).  He is also credited with the idea of critical consciousness in which individuals’ education is developed by “reading the word, but also reading the world” and creating an environment in which the teacher and students mutually learn from each other.  Successful experiments were conducted across the 1960s using Freire’s method and this was used by the Brazilian government to set up thousands of cultural circles all over Brazil (Bentley, 1999).  

Some additional key players during the 1960s included Fred Rogers whose show Mister Rogers’ Neighborhood first aired in 1968 (Burns, 2018).  The show modeled themes of kindness, love of learning, and equality and would remain a staple in American homes for the next thirty plus years (Burns, 2018).  Similarly, Joan Ganz Cooney executed her mission to educate children through television when Sesame Street first aired in November 1969 (“Our History,” 2020). Moreover, in 1969 John and Beth Tinker fought for students’ freedom of speech and expression during the Vietnam war protests in the Tinker v. Des Moines Independent Community School District case (“Facts and Case…,” n.d.).

Implications

The 1960s brought about the expansion of educational opportunity through social movements, federal aid, and increased educational interest. Participation in higher education greatly increased; “people of all ages were moving in and out of post‐secondary programs, changing careers, finishing interrupted degrees, learning new skills, and exploring dormant interests” (Ravitch, 1978).  The idea of lifelong learning became more prominent and individuals of all age took advantage of learning opportunities.  In fact, during this time about thirty-six percent, or about one-third, of college students were over the age of twenty-five (Ravitch, 1978).  The 1960s delivered considerable funding towards improving learning environments, creating educational and vocational programs for adults, increasing teachers’ salaries, and creating educational broadcasting facilities (“Federal Adult Education…,” 2013; “Legislative Summary: Education,” n.d.).  

This era in social history created a lasting impact in many areas of American lives, including education.  The Civil Rights Movement during this time led to further desegregation of schools and had a profuse impact on both how learning was done and what was being learned in schools (“The 1960s Education…,” 2021).  The recession provoked training for undereducated adults to level the playing field in competitive job markets and begin solving the issue of disproportion between socioeconomic status and education (“Federal Adult Education…,” 2013).  The Vietnam war inspired training and education for men in the military while the Free Speech Movement inspired reform in schools, colleges, and universities, impacting formal learning environments even today (“Federal Adult Education…,” 2013).  This period in time marked many advancements and accomplishments in adult education and the individuals, social movements, and organizations who fought for progression in this era created a foundation that we are still building on today.

Area	Summary
Social Background	John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson's federal impact; Civil Rights Movement, economic recession, Vietnam War, Free Speech Movement.
Highlights	Impact of the development of US Department of Education;s Adult Education Section; legislation including the Area Redevelopment Act of 1961; the Manpower Development and Training Act of 1963; the Economic Opportunity Act of 1964; the Adult Education Act of 1966; and the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1968.
Influential Factors	Presidents John F Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson; Paulo Freire; Civil Rights Activists including Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., Rosa Parks, Malcolm X, and Thurgood Marshall; Fred Rogers and others who brought educational programs to television for the first time.
Implications	Expansion of educational opportunity; increased interest in lifelong education and adult learning;  increased federal funding and focus on education; a transition in what is learned in schools and how learning occurs.

 

References

Armontrout, D.E. (1992). John F. Kennedy: a political biography on education. Retrieved February 12, 2021, from https://pdxscholar.library.pdx.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=5269&context=open_access_etds

Bentley, L. (1999). A Brief Biography of Paulo Freire. Retrieved February 12, 2021, from https://ptoweb.org/aboutpto/a-brief-biography-of-paulo-freire/

Burns, A.S. (2018). Mister Rogers Still Lives in Your Neighborhood. Retrieved February 12, 2021, from https://www.npr.org/2018/02/18/584669284/mister-rogers-still-lives-in-your-neighborhood

Facts and Case summary - Tinker v. Des Moines. (n.d.). Retrieved February 12, 2021, from https://www.uscourts.gov/educational-resources/educational-activities/facts-and-case-summary-tinker-v-des-moines

Federal Adult Education: A Legislative History 1964-2013. (2013, November). Retrieved February 12, 2021, from https://lincs.ed.gov/publications/pdf/Adult_Ed_History_Report.pdf

Legislative Summary: Education. (n.d.). Retrieved February 12, 2021, from https://www.jfklibrary.org/archives/other-resources/legislative-summary/education

Our history. (n.d.). Retrieved February 12, 2021, from https://www.sesameworkshop.org/who-we-are/our-history

Ravitch, D. (1978). 60’s Education, 70’s Benefits. Retrieved February 12, 2021, from https://www.nytimes.com/1978/06/29/archives/60s-education-70s-benefits.html

The 1960s Education: Overview. Encyclopedia.com. (12 Jan. 2021). Retrieved February 12, 2021, from https://www.encyclopedia.com/social-sciences/culture-magazines/1960s-education-overview